Week 10 Lecture 2: 20th and 21st Century Jerusalem

Well, it’s time for my last blog entry of the quarter. After 10 weeks, spanning at least 5000 years of history, we finally came to the discussion of “modern-day” Jerusalem, and the complicated and troublesome disputes over territory which characterize the Holy Land today. We first concluded the lecture on 20th century Jerusalem by talking about the Six-Day War in 1967; the Israelis made a preventative attack against Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Egypt, wiping out Egyptian forces and reclaiming the Old City. While the Knesset formally declared the Israeli annexation of Jerusalem on “Unification Day,” the UN rejected this declaration. Ultimately, as opposed to what was proposed in the Peel Plan, the Palestinians ended up with virtually nothing, and realized they would have been better off accepting the Israeli state to begin with; this led to the First Intifada (“uprising”) in 1987, after which the Oslo Accords (“Declaration of Principles”) was signed in 1993. By this agreement, the PNA (Palestinian National Authority) was created, the Israelis needed to withdraw from the Gaza Strip and West Bank, and the Palestinians and Israelis mutually recognized each other as states. However, in 1996, a tunnel was discovered under the Temple Mount, and the desire to make it a tourist attraction caused further conflict, and ultimately, the Second Intifada began with Ariel Sharon’s visit to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and still continues today.

We then moved on to talk about 21st Century Jerusalem, and put the territory under dispute into context of their larger Middle Eastern surroundings and also in comparison with various US states to see its diminutive size. Professor Cargill talked about the United States’ large influence over Israel, especially following the War on Terror in Iraq and Afghanistan starting in 2001. The Israelis, influenced by the US, then began to respond to “terrorist” (how do we define this? are the Israelis not also guilty of terrorism?) threats in the same way, by obliterating perceived threats and fighting back. To aid in this endeavor, the West Bank Barrier was constructed in 2002, but it did not follow the UN lines previously established and instead “grabbed” various villages and angered many Palestinians. In 2006, the militant Hamas group claimed power over the Palestinian government, because of former President Arafat’s embezzlement charges, and this only exacerbated Israeli-Palestinian relations, as well as caused a civil war among Palestinian factions. In 2009, the Israelis began shooting back over the West Bank Barrier in the Gaza Strip, known as “Operation Cast Lead,” and last year, not only did Israel make new housing settlements in E. Jerusalem, but also boarded and took over Gaza Flotilla ships, resulting in 9 deaths. Because of these recent turmoils, many wonder if peace is ever attainable, and if so, if it lies in the near future. Will Jerusalem be divided, or remain one city, and if so, who will control it? The fact that a city with so much symbolic meaning is overshadowed by violence is truly disturbing to me, and I would like to believe that at some point, hopefully in my life time, religious and political differences can be set aside to allow for the safety, happiness, and preservation of the Holy City and its inhabitants.

Week 10 Lecture 1: 20th Century Jerusalem

Today we finished up Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem, but as with my last entry, I will focus on the bulk of the lecture material, which was about Jerusalem during the 20th Century. The last century was characterized by vastly changing demographics, which permeated many aspects of life in Jerusalem. Even prior to World War I, the movement known as secular Zionism began to emerge; this refers to the desire for a Jewish (ethnic) homeland in Israel apart from religious motivations. Theodore Herzl is thought to have been one of the pioneers of this movement, but he did not tie his concept of Zion to Jerusalem – he suggested the state be in Uganda! He was seen as a messianic figure due to his leadership of and advocacy for Israel, and for this reason was one of the many figures referred to as the “Son of David” from 2 Samuel 7. Because the Jews began to become numerous, established, and successful in Palestine, there was a reactionary rise in anti-Semitism, leading up to Hitler’s rule of Germany. During World War I, Jerusalem served as the headquarters for the Eighth Turkish Corps; due to the Armenian genocide in Turkey, Armenians fled to Jerusalem populating the area now known as the Armenian Quarter. The war in Palestine was won by the British in 1917 when General Allenby broke the stalemate.

Upon the Allied victory, the British and French signed the Sykes-Picot Agreement to divvy up the former Ottoman Empire among them; the French expanded out from the north to Turkey, N. Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria, and the British expanded from the West Bank all the way East to Southern Iraq. In 1917, the British authored the Balfour Declaration to show support of Jewish Zionist aspirations (given that non-Jews were not harmed), but Palestinians took it to be an expression of support for their own cause. Thus, Winston Churchill published the “White Paper” in 1922 attempting to clarify the Balfour Declaration, but both sides still believed it applied to them, leading to riots. The UN passed Resolution 181 in 1947, theoretically dividing Palestine among Jews and Arabs and establishing Jerusalem as an “international city” controlled by neither faction, but the Arabs still did not approve of this; they wanted control over the entire state. In the midst of the 1948 “War of Independence” between the Arabs and Israelis, the British left after suffering massive attacks by the Jews, ending the British Mandate. Now, the Jordanians entered Palestine, and ultimately, the UN gave each entity a state separated by the “Green Line” – this border still causes much conflicts in the present day. Jerusalem, however, became the symbolic center of the Jewish people one more (as iterated by David Ben-Gurion in 1949), despite occupation by Jordanians as well, causing further “catastrophe” within the UN and between the two diverse ethnic groups in the Holy City.

Week 9 Lecture 2: Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem

While the beginning of today’s class was spent tying up loose ends/finishing our discussion of Islamic Jerusalem and Crusader Jerusalem, I will focus my blog today on Mamluk and Ottoman Jerusalem. Mamluk is a term which literally translates to “owned” – it was a grassroots movement of former slaves who converted to Islam (which interestingly means “submission”) and held political and military power over many Islamic Centers. However, Jerusalem under the Mamluks (from 1250-1516), as Professor Cargill repeatedly emphasized, was a religious center, not a political one. Stemming from the idea of ziyara, or visits to Jerusalem for those who could not make the hajj to Mecca, the Haram es-Sharif (Temple Mount) was heavily built up during this period. Additionally, the many eschatalogical (“end times”) myths surrounding the Haram drew the creation of many mausoleums and attracted many visitors. The many new additions were characterized by the distinctive Mamluk architectural style: red and white alternating stones, huge domed entrances with muqarnas (carved pieces building off one another in the dome’s interior), and many geometric black and white designs (graven images were still forbidden). Many madrasas, or schools, were built, most notably, the Al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, built by Sultan al-Ashrat Quaitbey in 1482 and featuring much calligraphy and geometry. In addition, the Ghawanima Minaret is emblematic of the Mamluk era, and stands on the northwest corner of the Haram, incorporating many Crusader architectural elements as well. Most of the Mamluk building, as Prof. Cargill emphasized, was done in the northwest corner of the Haram – what is now the Islamic Quarter. The Jewish Quarter began to grow under Mamluk rule, though, when Nachmanides pioneered Kabbalah mysticism, and some might argue, Zionism; the Temple became seen as a spiritualized path to God, not as a physical structure.

The Ottoman period of rule in Jerusalem lasted roughly from 1516 (when Selim I defeated the Mamluks and established “the first qiblah” or “direction of prayer” there) to 1918, with many changes of power and restorations of ruling happening during this time. Under Suleiman the Magnificient (who ruled from 1520-1566), many great public works projects were undertaken around the Haram, and the walls of Jerusalem were finally repaired. He established the shari’a court (based on the Qu’ran), but Jerusalem became a symbolic city once more for many religions (still not a strategic city), and the population tripled as Jews came back in. We then talked about the many gates of Jerusalem; first, the north-facing Damascus Gate was highly representative of Ottoman architecture, and its twists and turns were clearly designed with protection in mind. When we discussed the Jaffa Gate, Professor Cargill told us about Kaiser Wilhelm II, who irreverently broke the tradition of walking into the Holy City through the gate by riding through it with his cavalcade. Finally, we talked about the Western Wall, as distinguished both from the Western Wall of the city and the Western Wall of the Temple itself; what we know as the Shekhinah – the “presence of God” – actually refers to the western retaining wall of the Temple Mount (the Haram). Next time we will finish up our discussion of the Ottomans, and then move on to 20th and 21st century Jerusalem!

Week 9 Lecture 1: Crusader Jerusalem

Today we had a guest lecturer, Ryan Roberts, who talked about the “Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem” during the Crusades, from 1099-1187 CE. As we learned previously, Jerusalem was severely weakened from infighting between the various sects of Islam, and the brief transitioning from the Umayyad to the Abbasid to the Fatimid Dynasties. The Crusades were expeditions of Christians to take back the Holy Land (sanctioned by the pope), for which they would be rewarded with protection at home and with the Indulgence – a remission of penalties that were due for sins.  While we cannot pinpoint a single cause, the political divisions caused by the Holy Roman Empire as well as religious motivations (like the destruction of the Holy Sepulcher in 965) served as major influences. Additionally, it is very hard to distinguish the true story of the Crusades, as the Christian and Muslim sources are very contradictory, and it is difficult to know what to draw from each.

We do know that the First Crusade began as an ill-equipped peasant endeavor against the Turks, but then, as the nobles built their army and amassed funds and support, they launched a later, more successful attack, and Jerusalem was taken by Godfrey de Bouillon in 1099; Palestine became the “Kingdom of Jerusalem” and Baldwin was made its King. Jerusalem was the most powerful of the four Crusader Kingdoms (the others being Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli). Jerusalem itself was divided into four corners, with the Patriarch’s quarter being most religious, as it housed the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was rebuilt by the Crusaders. We discussed its decidedly Romanesque style (and how many other crusader arches are found throughout the Holy City), and the famous ladder which has not been moved in 200 years due to tension among Christian sects. This was contrasted with St. Anne’s Church, which also was constructed in the Romanesque style but was unadorned and known for its incredible acoustics. We talked about the Templars (who had their own quarter centered around the converted Al-Aqsa Mosque), who were a monastic order established to protect pilgrims coming to Jerusalem. Moreover, the Dome of the Rock was symbolically modified to include a cross at its top. Finally, in 1192, the Crusader Era came to an end after Saladin made a truce with Richard “the Lionheart” allowing Christian pilgrims to re-enter the city; however, the influence of the Crusades on Jerusalem’s shrines and architecture remains quite substantial.

Week 8 Lecture 2: Islamic Jerusalem

In today’s class, we discussed Early Islamic Jerusalem, which was between the Byzantine rule and the invasion by the Crusaders, and lasted approximately from 638-1099 CE. Before this period, the Sasanians took Jerusalem from the Parthians, and served as the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire between 614 and 628, at which point the Byzantine Heraclus retook the city and allowed massacres of Jews. The Muslim Caliph Umar took Jerusalem in 638; we discussed the legacy of caliphs following the prophet Muhammad; Umar was his companion, and after Uthman, the sectarian division occurred between the Shi’ites (kinship-based, under Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law) and Sunnis (tradition-based, under Mu’awiya, Uthman’s cousin). Early Islamic people called Jerusalem by several names, including Aelia, Bait Maqdis, and Haram al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), but regardless, it is still the third most holy site in Islam. In Qur’an 2:144, Muhammad has the revelation to turn toward the “Inviolable Place of Worship,” which ostensibly refers to the Kaaba in Mecca, the focal point of prayer. At this site, the Black Stone sits in the east corner, and is said to have fallen from a meteorite, further establishing it as an axis mundi. The large mosque Majid Al-Haram surrounds it; it used to be a pagan shrine and includes idols for many other gods, including Jesus, who was considered a prophet in the Islamic tradition, which incorporated sacred spaces and ideas from Judaism and Christianity (the “People of the Book”) in its earliest iterations.

We discussed the five pillars of Islam, the last of which, the hajj, is evidenced by door art in Jerusalem which families would make to warn others against stealing from them while on pilgrimage – a very grave sin. We then discussed the Umayyad rule of Jerusalem – a very important time, as Abd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock in 691 CE as an alternative Hajj site to keep people around Jerusalem. The Umayyads also built administrative centers and palaces against Herod’s retaining wall, remnants of which can still be seen today in the Southwest corner of the Temple Mount. The octagonal Dome of the Rock featured much geometric artwork as no graven images were allowed, and featured Arabic script around its perimeter, which denounced the idea of Jesus as a god and urged Christians not to believe in the Trinity – to Muslims, there is only one God, Allah. There are many traditions involving the Dome of the Rock, including Muhammad’s Mi’raj to the heavens and to the farthest mosque, which probably refers to Jerusalem, where the Al-Aqsa Mosque resides (built by Caliph Walid between 705-715 CE). Legend says that Muhammad rode on Al-Buraq, a mythical winged beast with a human head that closely resembled a lamassu. The Dome of the Chain also served as an axis mundi, being the geometric center of the Haram es-Sharif and the supposed place of the Final Judgment. Next time, we will move on to Crusader Jerusalem, but after that will finish our discussion of Islam in Jerusalem when Professor Cargill returns.

Week 7 Lecture 2: Jerusalem In Revolt

Today’s lecture was centered around the two main revolts against the Romans: the “Revolt of 70,” or First Revolt, and the 2nd Jewish Revolt, the “Bar-Kokhba Revolt.” In terms of sources for the former, we are limited to archaeological excavations, Tacitus Histories, and Josephus’ texts (Josephus, as we previously learned, made a “suicide pact” following a failed rebellion; to avoid killing himself he prophesized that Vespasian would become emperor, and when he did, was made a historian.) Herod’s kingdom was divided among his three sons: Archelaus became ethnarch, receiving the most land (Judea and Samaria), Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Perea and Galilee, and Herod Phillip got the raw end of the deal, receiving the regions of Iturea and Trachonitis. These Herodian rulers were replaced with direct Roman rule, who in general were inexperienced, fraught with conflict against the nationalistic Zealots, and slowly declined in quality until the summer of 66 CE, when violent open revolt began. The Jews began to mint their own money not only as a departure from offensive Roman images but as a means of asserting their authority. During the time of the revolt, Nero died and Vespasian returned and became governor, and on the 9th of Ab (the same date when the First Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians), Vespasian’s son Titus destroyed the Second Temple. This once again brought up the issue of cognitive dissonance, and this time, Professor Cargill placed it in the context of Judaism and Christianity becoming more spiritualized and less physical as a result of the Temple’s destruction.

We then talked about various archaeological remains and reconstructions, such as the Synagogue at Masada and Herod’s mountaintop palace, which was highly advantageous for security and sustainability purposes. We talked about the Judea Capta and Devicta coins, in which the Romans depicted Judea as a crying woman against a tree. Next, we discussed the Bar-Kokhba Revolt, the leader of which was not highly educated in Hebrew and thus made misspelled revolt coins as an attempt to replicate those of the First Revolt. Many of these coins “overstruck” previously existing Roman coins to save money and eliminate pagan symbols with traditionally Jewish ones – literally “stamping out” the Romans. Bar-Kokhba was notably called “prince” or “NSY,” which was highly significant as it had not been used since the era of the 12 tribes and moreover had Messianic implications. His revolt ultimately failed miserably, however, and the Romans converted the Holy City into the Aelia Capitolina – the end of Jerusalem as we knew it for quite some time. During this time, however, Jerusalem saw a rise in synagogues presumably in response to the temple’s destruction, and a gain in popularity of small arks to hold the Torah and possibly represent the original Ark of the Covenant. The design of the synagogue essentially proved that the Jewish religion had evolved from a religion of blood sacrifice to a more practical, intellectual religion of the book.

 

Week 7 Lecture 1: Herodian Jerusalem

For most of today’s class, we discussed Jerusalem under the rule of Herod the Great. The Roman rule over the Holy City actually began in 63 BCE with the conquest by Pompey, who then installed Hyrcanus as the ethnarch (“ruler of a people”) and Antipater as the procurator (local governor or overseer); the latter was actually Idumean – a group that was forcibly circumcised under the Hasmoneans, not fully Jewish, and thus sympathized with the Romans. In 43 BCE, Antipater was murdered, and his son Herod exacted revenge by expelling the Parthians and ultimately taking Jerusalem in 37 BCE. We have coins that prove that Herod existed, and that he tried to simultaneously appeal to the Romans (by depicting a Roman helmet) and the Jews (by withholding graven images); this attempt to be a “client king” to both groups to prevent revolt was characteristic of his rule. Herod was extremely paranoid about being overthrown, and he thus terrorized many people into submission dictatorially. Matthew 2 describes the story of how he ordered all children in Bethlehem under the age of two killed because the Magi would not tell him where the baby Jesus (the “New King of the Jews”) was born; while this story can never be proven historically, it certainly fits with what we know about his character.

Herod was best known for his many building projects which served as his legacy and created jobs; we spent the remainder of the class talking about the many examples of these buildings. First off, the Herodian Temple Mount (the “Third Temple”) was an expansion of the second temple, making it much more grand, and he built the Western Wall to retain it, which now serves as the holiest site in Judaism. The Herodian Temple was comprised of many concentric circles of increasing holiness, in keeping with Eliade’s theory of sacred spaces. We also discussed the location of the Al Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Rock, and the Umayyad palaces which expanded against/in place of the Temple Mount today. We learned the location of the Triple Gate, or Huldah Gate, as well as the Jaffa Gate, which led to the Citadel of David – to which Herod added three large fortifications to protect the city against attack and where he could hide during internal uprisings. We talked about the finding of Herodian Miqvah, or Jewish ritual baths, which indicated the presence of the Jewish faith and could have been the precursors to baptism. We learned about the archaeological evidence for Robinson’s Arch, a staircase which probably supported the side of the Temple and served as a “side door” at the southwest corner. Also at this corner was the “place of trumpeting” which Josephus described as a place where a priest would signal the sundown of Shabbat, and an inscription bearing these words was found at the site. Herod also built a massive palace, theater, fortress (for the Romans to watch over the city), and Hippodrome, and expanded the Siloam Pool with drainage systems (many infrastructure systems were made during this period).